Achievement Goal Theory

The central proposition of achievement goal theory revolves around the manner in which individuals determine their goals in achievement settings such as sport, PE, and the classroom.

According to this theory three factors interact to determine a persons motivation:

	Achievement goals.
	Perceived ability.
	Achievement behaviour.

This proposition indicates that individuals in achievement settings are typically oriented to one of two goals when determining whether or not they have been successful in these contexts.

	Someone may have a ‘task goal orientation’ where the focus is on improving performance relative to past performance, not on comparison with others. They have a stronger work ethic, are more persistent, and are better motivated because the factors they focus on are internal and more controllable.
	Others may have an ‘outcome goal orientation’ where they constantly compare themselves with others. Such factors are external and uncontrollable. They tend to give up more easily, and select tasks that are easier to perform.

Individuals who determine success based on self-improvement and task mastery are displaying a task orientation. For example, runners primarily concerned with improving their technical form and race times are displaying a task orientation. Conversely, individuals who determine success by comparing their own performances with those of others are displaying an ego orientation. For example, runners who focus on beating their competition regardless of time or technique are displaying an ego orientation. (For a more complete understanding of achievement goal theory see Nicholls, 1984, 1989 and Dweck & Leggett, 1988.)

Although researchers continue to debate whether task orientation or ego orientation is more desirable, the majority of the literature tends to support that a task orientation is more conducive to positive behaviors in achievement settings. Moreover, researchers have now begun to develop pedagogical practices that seem to influence the achievement goal orientation of individuals. Therefore, the primary purpose of this paper is to describe the methods that one can use to positively influence an individuals to engage in achievement settings with a task orientation.

Motivational Climates

Ames (1992a, 1992b) has argued that individual goal orientations may be influenced by the motivational climates that are created by what teachers and significant others say and do. Moreover, Ames (1992a, 1992b) suggested that climates focused on skill learning and self-improvement influence task orientation, while climates focused on comparisons of performance and ability with peers foster an ego orientation. Climates that foster a task orientation are called task-involving while climates that foster an ego orientation are called ego-involving.

Principles described by Ames (1992b) and Epstein (1988) concerning classroom structure and resulting climates are used to design motivational climates that influence task or ego orientation. These principles are based on the alterable elements of a lesson which are, task, authority, rewards, grouping, evaluation, and time. These elements have been referred to by using the acronym TARGET (Ames, 1992b; Epstein, 1988). The choices teachers make about these elements determine the degree to which an instructional climate is more task- or ego-involving.

Motivational Climates and Children with Disabilities

Because task orientation has been purported to be the best achievement goal orientation for fostering a high level of motivational behavior in achievement settings, it is recommended that a task orientation be fostered. Teachers and parents can manipulate the achievement setting or environment using the TARGET principles. Specifically, consideration of each element with the development of learning environment or achievement setting should foster a task orientation among children.

A high task-involving motivational climate is produced when an evaluations of the child performance are private and self-referenced and the child has the opportunity to receive rewards privately. Additionally, the child should be encouraged to set their own short-term objectives and permitted to choose the tasks in which they will participate with the guidance of the person in charge. That is, the child is not simply told what to do but has some input and control. The child should also be allowed to set up his or her own equipment and materials (when safe) and to work independently or in mixed-ability groups. The time to complete the task should be flexible and relevant to each individual child.

Conclusion

Learning to create climates that foster task orientation may seem daunting and is difficult at first. Especially since relinquishing some degree of control might feel uncomfortable when it is first attempted. However, if one consistently works to develop climates based on the TARGET elements, over time the motivational level of the child will increase.

For further reading: TARGET Acheivement Goal Theory in Youth Sport in Adobe Acrobat format.

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